HANDBOOK ON WORKERS' RIGHTS IN THE GLOBAL ECONOMY

Women Working Worldwide

All workers have rights. With this Handbook, Women Working Worldwide aims to help people to understand our rights as workers so that we can protect ourselves against abuse. We hope that you can use this booklet in your daily lives.

We have also produced a smaller Pocket Guide to Workers' Rights. This gives a more basic introduction into what our rights are and how we can struggle to get them respected. This Handbook builds on the information that is in the Pocket Guide, giving more detail and examples.

Women Working Worldwide believes that it is important to know what our rights are and how we can work together to defend them. We live in a competitive global economy where many employers and governments ignore their duty to respect the rights of workers. Many companies move from place to place, from country to country, seeking out situations where they can violate workers' rights to keep down labour costs. Every year there are workers who die or are thrown in jail for trying to defend workers' rights.

All workers everywhere do have rights, including homeworkers, domestic workers and migrant workers, as well as workers in factories, offices and plantations. This is laid down at international level and in many national laws. The problem we face is how to claim these rights. The worldwide labour and trade union movement works to defend workers' rights. There is also a growing movement of consumer activists who support workers' rights. Under pressure from an alliance of workers and consumers, even some companies are saying that they will respect workers' rights.

Globalisation offers ordinary people new opportunities to defend our rights. More than ever before we can exchange information, learn from each other, and build common strategies across international borders. There are many, many examples of how this is happening. Joint campaigns by workers and community activists, locally and internationally, are bringing great pressure on companies and governments to respect our rights.

This Handbook contains:

• What our rights are
• How workers are fighting for workers' rights
• Our rights in law
• International workers' rights
• Consumers and workers' rights
• Company codes of conduct
• What we can do.

Written by Celia Mather and Rohini Hensman for WWW. March 2000
Cartoons by Gemma Parker

Copyright of this Handbook is owned by Women Working Worldwide. You are welcome to photocopy or quote from the pack so long as Women Working Worldwide is credited.

Produced as part of a project supported by the National Lotteries Charity Board (UK), the European Commission, Fondation des Droits de l'Homme au Travail, Trocaire, CAFOD, Wainwright Trust and War on Want. WWW thanks these organisations for their support.

Workers everywhere have rights. Whether we are homeworkers, or work in a workshop, in a factory, or in a field, all of us have rights.

All governments in the United Nations have agreed that:

• All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
• Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.
• No-one shall be held in slavery or servitude.
• No-one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.

Workers' rights are human rights and it is the fundamental right of everyone:

• To have just and favourable conditions of work.
• To get equal pay for equal work, and suffer no discrimination.
• To get just and favourable pay, giving the worker and his/her family "an existence worthy of dignity".
• To form and to join trade unions to protect our interests.
• To have rest and leisure, reasonable working hours and paid holidays.

(United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Articles 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 23 and 24)

Many other workplace rights have been recognised too, such as:

• The workplace must be safe and healthy.
• Workers must not face discrimination.
• Workers have the right to have and care for children at the same time as being a worker.

Some rights are laid down at international level, agreed by governments. Some rights are laid down in the laws of countries. Some rights are not yet recognised in law, even though workers think they should be.

All over the world, workers face many difficulties in claiming their rights. Many governments and employers refuse to recognise that workers have rights. But if anyone says "You workers, you don't have rights", tell them " Oh yes we do! "

In this Handbook, we are mainly looking at workplace rights and how they can be claimed. But there are many, many other rights recognised at international as well as national level. There are women's rights, nationality rights, rights to equal access to the law, rights to have a say in the way that society is run, and many more. Organised workers are often at the forefront of fighting for these wider rights too.

In the globalised economy of today, there is fierce competition between companies for markets and between countries for investments.

One crucial method by which companies compete is by reducing their labour costs, and this involves attacking the rights of workers. Many transnational corporations sub-contract production to local suppliers as a way of avoiding their responsibilities towards workers.

Meanwhile one of the main ways in which countries compete for investments is by offering workforces which are not protected by labour legislation. In the process many governments fail in their duty to respect the international agreements that they themselves signed.

The impact of this global competition is that workers in one place are played off against workers in another, driving down the conditions for all workers. Some see it as a 'race to the bottom'. Forced overtime, child labour, and very poor health and safety standards underpin the profitability of many industries. This is happening everywhere, particularly in the poorest countries.

People who are in work are increasingly in casual rather than secure jobs, on short-term contracts or no contracts at all. There is a big growth in putting out work to homeworkers. The Textile, Clothing and Footwear Union of Australia calculates there are now 15 homeworkers for every one garment worker in a factory in that country.

In this situation, it is very important to work together to defend and extend our rights.

Workers have many rights, laid down by international agreement between governments.

Workers have won those rights by fighting for them. Governments and employers have never just given us our rights. Workers have always had to struggle for these rights.

We have won those rights by getting together to argue our case. Together we can put pressure on employers and governments to listen to our demands. The most significant way for workers to do this is by forming, joining and taking part in trade unions. When this is not possible, workers form other types of organisation.

It is one of our basic human rights to build our own organisations, free from victimisation or harrassment either by employers or by the government. Yet in some countries unionists can even be killed or tortured for it. Many workers show great bravery in their struggle for workers' rights.

It is through our workers' organisations that we can make our case for better working conditions. We can campaign and bring pressure on governments to pass labour protection laws. It is another basic right that trade unions can negotiate with employers. Through negotiation they can reach Collective Bargaining Agreements to set out agreed employment conditions.

Workers' organisations also take up wider issues of concern to workers and our communities. For example, they can argue for an economy that is run in the interests of the mass of the people rather than the special interests of a few.

Not to face discrimination is a fundamental human right. Unfortunately, discrimination can also exist inside workers' own organisations.

Well-run trade unions are controlled by their members, the workers who belong to them. So the concerns they take up tend to be the concerns of the majority or dominant members. This can leave out others, such as women workers, migrant workers, workers from ethnic minority groups, or homeworkers, who find their needs sidelined. They may join the union to fight for their voice to be heard. Or they may form their own associations to fight for their rights.

However, discrimination violates international principles of human rights. It therefore cannot be tolerated wherever it exists, including inside workers' organisations. It also undermines solidarity between workers and weakens all our activities to claim our rights.

In countries like Australia, Canada and South Africa, there is growing recognition among the trade unions that they must involve homeworkers and workers in the so-called 'informal sector', in order to defend the rights of all workers.

What Can We Do?

• Join a workers' organisation such as a trade union.
• Take an active part in making your organisation stronger to fight for your rights and the rights of all other workers.

Workers and their organisations have pushed governments in many countries to pass laws which protect workers. These laws have also been influenced by international labour and human rights standards, which we will look at in detail later.

Having these labour laws is a big step forward. They place limits on the power of employers.

Labour laws vary enormously from one country to another, and so the legal recognition of workers' rights varies too.

Labour laws usually confirm workers' rights, for example, to:

• Work in safe and healthy conditions
• Be paid at least a minimum wage
• Get paid more for overtime
• Not to be forced to do overtime
• Enjoy paid holidays each year
• Get paid sick leave
• Work at night under controlled conditions
• Have paid maternity leave
• Organise trade unions and negotiate with employers.

Even in countries where labour laws and courts are strong, certain workers can be denied their rights. Workers in small workshops are often not seen as having rights.

Free Trade Zones (also called Special Economic Zones or Export-Processing Zones) are special areas where the government has given certain promises to attract investors. One such promise is that the country's labour laws do not apply to workers in the Zone.

Also, some people at work are not recognised as workers. Domestic workers such as maids, cleaners and gardeners are legally recognised as workers in only a few countries like South Africa and Canada. Homeworkers are workers employed by a firm but who work in their own home. They are also often not recognised as workers under law. Migrant workers can be made 'illegal' where a country has repressive immigration laws. This 'illegal' status means that they are also not legally recognised as workers.

These different forms of discrimination violate international standards.

Campaigning and Education

Many workers do not know what labour laws exist in their country. It is therefore very important to campaign and educate about labour laws.

This might mean workers getting together in small study circles to find out and discuss what labour laws exist at national and international level, and how to fight for them. It might mean producing posters and distributing materials (such as the 'Pocket Guide to Workers' Rights' which accompanies this Handbook). It might also mean using the press and media as far as possible in your country.

Taking An Employer to Court

In most countries, employers who do not respect labour laws can be taken to court. There may be industrial courts in your country which exist especially to hear cases where workers have been illegally treated by their employers.

Also, if an employer violates a Collective Bargaining Agreement, the trade union can take the employer to court.

In some countries, it is extremely difficult and/or costly to exercise this right to take an employer to court. Even in the most repressive countries, however, there can be trade unions and human rights lawyers who will help workers.

• Find out what labour laws exist in your own country.
• Campaign so that the labour laws apply to all workers.
• Encourage widespread education and campaigning on workers' rights.
• Think about what other laws you want to fight for.
• Find out what rights exist in your country to take an employer to court, what the process is, and who will help you to do this.

All who work have rights, whoever and wherever we are. This has been laid down at the international level by all governments in the United Nations and the International Labour Organisation.

The UN has many agreements and covenants which governments have signed over the years upholding the rights of workers. The most fundamental is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which has many Articles that confirm the human rights of all workers. Women's rights are laid down in the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1981).

The UN's declarations are statements of principle. There are no formal ways of making sure that they are implemented, but they can be used to bring pressure on governments and employers. The ILO (see below) does have some, albeit weak, mechanisms to enforce workers' rights.

International Labour Organisation (ILO)

The ILO was founded in 1919 and is now part of the United Nations. It is the international organisation that sets standards on international labour rights and monitors how they are applied.

The ILO is 'tripartite' which means that employers, governments and trade unions sit down together in the ILO. Most countries of the world belong to the ILO. It therefore has the most universal support as a body promoting fundamental human rights at work.

During its long life, the ILO has passed nearly 200 Conventions (182 by 1999). Conventions are standards that guarantee various labour rights. Governments of countries that have joined the ILO are asked to ratify these Conventions. Once ratified, that particular Convention is binding on the country concerned. The Government is supposed to pass laws to implement it and report regularly to the ILO on how it is implementing it. Copies of the government reports should be circulated to employers' and workers' organisations so that they too have an opportunity to make their comments.

The ILO also has a similar number of Recommendations. They are not binding but are guidelines for governments on labour standards.

National union confederations, union federations for particular branches of industry, regional or local organisations, and even a union of a plant or plants, all have a right to submit their comments to the ILO. International trade unions are also entitled to make comments. Comments and complaints can be made at any time. It is more difficult but not impossible for other types of workers' organisations to make complaints to the ILO.

When the ILO receives a complaint about non-implementation of a ratified Convention, it can request more information or a report from the government. The government comes under pressure to ensure the Convention is actually implemented and the workers' rights are respected. As a result, in thousands of cases there has been real improvement.

The are many, many cases where ILO Conventions are blatantly violated by employers and governments, however. Some governments collude with employers to violate workers' rights.

Unfortunately, the ILO can do very little apart from naming and shaming governments. If a government is not ashamed of violating workers' rights, it is likely that these violations will continue.

Trying to pursue millions of violations is an impossible task. Instead, the ILO concentrates on seven 'Core' Conventions which are seen as fundamental and apply in all countries, even where a government does not respect them.

On 18 June 1998, the ILO adopted the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work and its Follow-Up. This confirms that all member states must implement the ILO's Core Conventions even if they have not ratified them. This is an important tool for workers to use.

The right to organise and bargain collectively

ILO Convention No.87 on the Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organize (1948)
ILO Convention No.98 on the Right to Organize and Collective Bargaining (1949)

All workers (except the armed forces and police) have the right to set up and join the organisation of their choice. The state cannot interfere with these workers' organisations or suspend or dissolve them. These organisations have the right to set up and join federations and confederations, which have the same rights. They all have the right to affiliate to international organisations of workers. (ILO Convention No.87)

All workers are protected from anti-union discrimination and victimisation. Employers must not refuse to employ union members, nor dismiss or victimise workers for joining a union or taking part in it. Employers must not interfere with workers' organisations, for example by setting up employer-dominated unions or trying to control unions. Governments must support voluntary collective bargaining between employers and workers' organisations so that collective agreements can be reached on terms and conditions of employment. (ILO Convention No.98)

These Conventions protect the fundamental right to freedom of association. The ILO considers them the most basic of the principles underlying its work because, if workers are free to organise themselves and bargain collectively, they can win many other rights.

A tripartite Committee on Freedom of Association meets three times a year to examine complaints, including from workers' organisations, even against countries that have not ratified these Conventions.

Unfortunately, in many countries, these Conventions are violated. Workers are not allowed to form or join workers' organisations. Governments and/or employers interfere in trade unions. Trade union members are victimised.

It is therefore very important to know that these rights to form trade unions and bargain collectively with employers are universally accepted as the fundamental rights of all people at work.

An End to Forced Labour

"No-one shall be held in slavery or servitude".
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 4.

ILO Convention No.29 on Forced Labour (1930)
ILO Convention No.105 on the Abolition of Forced Labour (1957)

All forms of forced or compulsory labour are banned. (The only exception is when a government calls up people for an emergency or for military or public service. In such cases, the workers must be granted normal wages, working hours and weekly off-days, compensation for sickness or accidents, and support for their families if they are disabled or die. The call-up cannot last more than 60 days in a year.) Compulsory overtime is a form of forced labour and therefore not allowed. ILO Convention No.29

Debt bondage is banned. This is where workers are advanced money by an employer and then forced to continue working for that employer on the excuse that they have not paid back the debt. Bonded labour can even be passed on to the workers' children. This Convention says that wages must be paid regularly. It rules out methods of payment which take away the worker's right to leave or change jobs. ILO Convention No.105

Forcing someone to work is a violation of that person's human rights. It also undermines workers' rights in general. If some people can be forced to work against their will, all workers suffer because it forces everyone's wages and conditions down.

An End to Child Labour

ILO Convention No.138 on the Minimum Age (1973)
ILO Convention No.182 on an end to the worst forms of child labour (1999)

All governments must have a national policy to ensure the effective abolition of child labour. The Convention says that in most countries the minimum age for employment should be 15 years, or 14 years in less developed countries. ILO Convention No.138

A new Convention on eliminating the worst forms of child labour was adopted in 1999. Governments must take immediate steps to end the use of children under 18 years as slaves or bonded labourers, in prostitution or pornography, in the drugs trade or other criminal activities, and in other work that harms their health, safety or morals. The ILO sees these at the first steps towards eliminating all child labour. ILO Convention No.182

Child labour also violates the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) which deals with the human rights of children.

Ending child labour is not a simple issue. Taking children out of employment requires a lot of time, effort and resources if they are not to end up in a worse situation such as on the streets. Fair wages for adults would reduce the need for poor families to send their children out to work.

In 1998 the Global March Against Child Labour passed through 107 countries to reach Geneva for the annual meeting of the ILO in June. It was supported by the ILO and 1100 NGOs, trade unions and others, aimed at raising awareness about child labour and identifying ways of abolishing it. Both working and school-going children took part, standing up for the human rights of all children. Now the ILO's International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour is trying to promote effective alternatives to child labour.

An End to Discrimination

Convention No.100 on Equal Remuneration (1951)
Convention No.111 on Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) (1958)

"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights."
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1).

Ever since it was founded, equality of opportunity and treatment has been at the heart of the ILO.

All governments must have a national policy to eliminate discrimination. The policy should cover access to employment, training and working conditions. It should ban discrimination on grounds of race, colour, gender, religion, political opinion, national extraction, social origin or anything else. It should promote equality of opportunity and treatment in employment. Governments must pass laws and organise educational programmes to promote equality of opportunity and treatment. In each country there must be a national authority to implement the policy. ILO Convention No.111

Men and women must get equal pay for work of equal value. This applies to basic wages or salaries and all other payments, both direct and indirect. To decide whether work is of equal value there must be an objective evaluation of the work to be done, without any discrimination based on gender. ILO Convention No.100

Women's rights are laid down in the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1981). Article 11 says that women workers must have the same opportunities for promotion, training, job security, pay, sickness benefits and paid leave. No woman can be dismissed for being pregnant or getting married. Working conditions for pregnant women must be safe and healthy.

The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1976) also speaks of "equal pay for work of equal value without distinction of any kind, in particular women being guaranteed conditions of work not inferior to those enjoyed by men". (Article 7)

Unfortunately, discrimination continues to exist against many different kinds of workers.

Discrimination against some workers violates the rights of those individuals. It also undermines the rights of all workers. For example, if some workers are paid less than others to do the same work, this undermines the job security of the better-paid workers. Where large numbers of workers are excluded from the workforce for whatever reason, this creates a vast pool of workers so desperate that they may accept work on almost any terms. Discrimination also encourages division and conflict between workers rather than solidarity.

International standards cover many other important workers' rights. Below are just a few.

The right to just and favourable conditions of work

All workers should get "fair wages … a decent living for themselves and their families", as a minimum, according to the UN International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1976), Article 7. Yet over 1,300 million workers and family members in the world live in poverty.

A legal minimum wage that is adequate to cover the basic needs of workers and their families is often called a 'living wage'. Deciding what the level of this wage should be is not easy. It depends on many factors such as the local cost of food, clothing and fuel, whether there is subsidised healthcare, education, housing and social security benefits, and so on. Unlike other workers' rights, which are the same everywhere, the living wage will vary from one place to another. However, it can be estimated, and it is a legitimate demand for workers and their organisations to make.

The right to a safe and healthy workplace

Employers are responsible for making sure that workplaces are safe and healthy.
ILO Convention No.155 on Occupational Safety and Health (1981), ILO Convention No.176 on Safety and Health in Mines (1993) and ILO Convention No. 174 on the Prevention of Major Accidents (1993) are among the many ILO standards which deal with this issue.

UN International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1976), Article 7, also confirms that all workers have the right to safe and healthy working conditions.

Equal rights for part-time workers

Part-time workers have the same rights as full-time workers when it comes to organising trade unions, negotiating with employers, and acting as workers' representatives. They have the same occupational safety and health rights. They must not suffer discrimination in employment and occupation. They must not be paid wages which are disproportionately lower than the wages of full-time workers.
ILO Convention 175 on Part-Time Work (1994)

Reasonable working hours, weekly days off, and the right to refuse overtime

All workers have the right to "rest, leisure and reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay, as well as remuneration for public holidays". The UN International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1976), Article 7.

ILO Convention No.47 on the Forty-Hour Week (1935) sets the standard working week at 40 hours. Many workers work much longer than this, leaving inadequate time for the care of the family. Reduced working hours would also increase job opportunities for more workers.

Overtime beyond statutory working hours should be limited and voluntary. If overtime is compulsory, it violates the ILO Convention No.29 on Forced Labour.

Workers at night have protection under ILO Convention No.171 on Night Work (1990).

Parental rights

Marriage, pregnancy or motherhood cannot be a reason for dismissal or denial of employment. Adequate maternity leave and medical facilities must be provided.
ILO Convention No.103 on Maternity Protection (Revised) (1952).

During "a reasonable period before and after childbirth … working mothers should be accorded paid leave or leave with adequate social security benefits".
UN International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1976), Article 11.

ILO Convention No.156 on Workers with Family Responsibilities (1981) recognises the parental rights and responsibilities of fathers as well as mothers.

Equal rights for homeworkers.

Homeworkers have the same rights as other workers. They can establish or join organisations of their own choice. They must be protected against discrimination, and health and safety hazards. They have rights to pay, social security and maternity protection, and access to training. ILO Convention No 177 on Home Work (1996)

Homeworkers, the vast majority of whom are women, are one of the most vulnerable groups of workers. Very often they are not recognised as workers at all. Employers like to say that labour laws do not apply to people who work in their own homes. Homeworkers are usually paid below minimum wages, and do not receive benefits that other workers are entitled to such as paid holidays and sick leave. Health hazards result from the work being done at home. Children and babies can be exposed to dust, hazardous chemicals, sharp objects, etc. Being scattered, homeworkers find it difficult to organise. There is often no formal employment contract, and so they can easily be victimised by being denied work.

It is very important to put pressure on governments to ratify the Home Work Convention and pass laws to implement it. This will not only benefit homeworkers, but raise standards for all workers.

There are other rights which workers would like to see covered by ILO Conventions but they are not yet. They include:

A proper employment contract

Victimisation is very easy where there is no employment contract. This is because employers do not have to give a reason for dismissing a worker. They may even deny that the worker was employed in the first place! Yet, until now, workers' rights to a proper employment contract seem not to be recognised in international standards.

The right to strike

All workers have "the right to strike, provided that it is exercised in conformity with the laws of the particular country". This is laid down in the UN International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1976), Article 8, but not yet in an ILO standard.

Freedom from physical and verbal abuse and sexual harassment

Everyone has the right to dignity and freedom from cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment, according to the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), Article 5. Sexual harrassment should be included as abuse but this is not spelt out. Also, these rights seem not to exist in ILO Conventions.

• Get a copy of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights and post it up in or near your workplace.
• Campaign so that the labour laws in your country conform to ILO Core Conventions.
• Press the Government to ratify any other ILO Conventions that it has not yet.
• Document cases where ILO Core Conventions are being violated, including in the informal sector and Free Trade Zones. Tell the ILO about these violations, and ask for its support to implement them.
• Campaign for a national policy to ensure equality of opportunity and treatment, and a national authority to implement the policy, if these do not already exist.
• Find out which trade unions from your country represent you at the ILO. What are their activities? How can you strengthen your viewpoint in the ILO?
• Find out what training and education programmes on workers' rights the ILO is running in your country, and how you can get involved in them.

As we have seen, workers worldwide have many rights that are laid down in the national laws of their own countries and in international standards. It is workers themselves who have organised and fought over many years to win these rights.

The problem is not that we have no rights. It is that we face many difficulties in getting our rights respected. We may even face severe repression.

Only a minority of the world's workers are able to exercise their rights. This is not a problem only for workers in poor countries. It is a global problem, as we have discussed in this Handbook.

This shared experience of globalisation is increasingly bringing workers together throughout the world. How are workers' organisations defending workers' rights worldwide?

Solidarity is about workers sharing experiences and giving mutual support. It can be done locally, regionally and internationally. Solidarity is especially effective where it links workers in a similar situation who have common experiences. They may be workers employed by the same transnational corporation or in the same sector. In these days of sub-contracting, however, building solidarity can be very difficult, even though just as important.

One challenge is that still today many workers worldwide do not think of themselves as working in the global economy. Education and mobilisation programmes that bring workers in contact with each other can develop this knowledge, understanding, and mutual solidarity. Computer communications using e-mail and the Internet are now very important tools that help workers to learn from each other and build common strategies across borders.

Most trade unions are members of international trade union federations (known as International Trade Secretariats, or ITSs). These federations bring together unions in particular industries and sectors. There is the IUF for food, hotel and plantation workers, the ITGLWF for garment workers, the ICEM for chemical, energy and mine workers, the ITF for transport workers, and the PSI for public sector workers, amongst others.

These ITSs play many different roles. They take part in discussions in the ILO and elsewhere to improve the standard and application of workers' rights internationally. They lobby governments where there is a gross violation of workers' rights. They bring trade unions together to develop joint strategies in a particular industrial sector or a particular transnational corporation.

Workers sharing the same employer can benefit a lot from exchanging information on the company and its global strategies, and planning jointly how to confront them.

Recently, unions have begun to reach agreements with certain employers, global agreements which apply to all that company's workers worldwide. There are still only a few such global agreements as they take a lot of effort to negotiate with employers. They are not legally binding as there are no international courts to enforce them. But unions can be mobilised to support these agreements.

International trade unions are also lobbying for ILO labour standards to be included in international trade agreements. They argue that the trade agreements of the World Trade Organisation should benefit countries which uphold ILO standards, and penalise countries which do not. They call these clauses in trade agreements, 'social clauses'.

Many governments within the WTO are resisting. Poor countries fear that the imbalance of power in the WTO means that such clauses could be used against them. Within the labour movement there is concern about how these clauses can be made effective.

Joint campaigns by workers and community activists, locally and internationally, are bringing great pressure on companies and governments to defend workers' rights.

Collaboration between trade unions and community-based campaigns and NGOs has not always been easy. Trade unions are membership organisations. Where democracy works well, involving union members, it can take time for unions to respond. On the other hand, NGOs can act fast but not be accountable. There are other reasons too that can frustrate attempts at working together. Nevertheless, this collaboration is a growing and positive trend.

• Think about how your workplace is linked to other workplaces in the global economy. What might be your links with workers in other places and other countries? How can you strengthen these links and build solidarity?
• Find out if your organisation already links with workers or trade unions in other countries. How can you be involved in these activities?
• If you are in a trade union, is it affiliated to an International Trade Secretariat? If not, find out which ITS deals with your industry, and discuss in the union whether to affiliate to it.

Many people who buy the goods we make, or make use of the services we provide, also agree that workers must be paid decent wages and work in good conditions.

In some countries, especially in Europe and North America, some consumers have been shocked to see the poor conditions of the workers making their goods. TV programmes showed them how the workers struggled for their rights but were beaten back by employers and governments. They noted the huge difference between the prices of the products in the shops and the miserable wages paid to workers.

Consumer activists began campaigning and asking questions of the companies which make the goods and the shops which sell them. They put pressure on the companies by handing out leaflets to shoppers and doing street theatre. Students have got their universities to threaten to stop buying goods from companies which treat the workers badly.

Campaigners say that some of the big profits made by the companies must be given back to the workers in higher wages and better working conditions. Companies must stop moving from one place to another as a way of avoiding treating the workers properly so as to reduce labour costs.

Companies have come under a lot of pressure from workers and consumers about the abuse of workers' rights around the world.

At first most companies said that it is none of their business how workers are treated in far-off countries. But some became scared that they would suffer from bad publicity and lose sales and investment. In Britain, an organisation called Christian Aid got its supporters to use their till slips to put pressure on the supermarkets. They told store managers, "We want you to improve the conditions for the workers who make the products you sell. Otherwise we will shop elsewhere".

So some companies have now adopted Codes of Conduct that say they will respect certain workers' rights. Some Codes also say how the company will bring pressure on its sub-contractors and suppliers to improve workers' conditions.

The companies that have done this are mostly the big retailers and manufacturers of garments, sportswear, toys and food products. This is because they are the ones most at risk from consumer pressure.

Company Codes of Conduct usually say there should be no forced labour or child labour, no physical or mental abuse, and a safe and healthy working environment. They confirm that companies should abide by local laws.

A major problem is that workers often do not know that a code exists for their workplace. They are almost never asked to play a role in drawing up the codes. So the codes often do not contain the issues which are most important for workers. For example, a big concern of women workers is sexual abuse but this is rarely mentioned in codes. Some workers are often left out altogether, such as homeworkers. Few company codes refer to workers' rights to organise trade unions.

Nor are workers involved enough in monitoring how their company's code is being implemented. With many codes it is only up to the company to make sure it is implemented. There are many examples where a Code exists but the workers' situation has not improved. Therefore many workers and consumers worry that Codes can be used to quieten down public opinion without making any real difference to the workers.

But in their Codes, companies are agreeing that workers have rights. If your employer has a Code, you have the right to know about it and should be asked to help monitor how it is being implemented, free from victimisation. Maybe you can use the Code to help claim your rights. There is some evidence from Indonesia, that once workers found out that a code existed, banning compulsory overtime in their factory, they were able to mobilise other workers and start to build a trade union.

The international trade union movement fears that, instead of helping workers to build trade unions, company codes of conduct could be used to undermine them. The International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU), which brings together nearly 200 national trade union centres in 137 countries, has said that :

• All codes must be based on the ILO Core Conventions
• The best people to monitor labour practices are always the workers concerned through their own trade unions.

The ICFTU has brought out its own Model Code of Labour Practice for companies, unions and campaigners to follow.

• Think about who buys the goods you produce, or the services you supply. How can they support your rights? How can you be in contact with them?
• Find out if a Code of Conduct applies to your workplace. It may be that your place of work is supplying goods to a company that has a code. If so, consider whether you can use the code to build your trade union.
• Get a copy of the ICFTU Model Code of Labour Practice or the Clean Clothes Campaign Code and use it in your campaigns.

More information about Codes of Conduct is given in Company Codes of Conduct: What Are They? Can We Use Them? An Education Pack for Worker Activists, produced by Women Working Worldwide.

As we have seen, governments, consumers,
and even many employers agree that
workers have rights.

· Know our rights

Many of us know too little about the labour laws in our own countries and about the international labour standards that exist to protect workers. This booklet describes some of the international standards. You will need to find out about the national laws in your own country, and how you can use them. Once you have, education and campaigning, including using the press and media, are very important activities to help inform more workers about the rights that they have and to encourage them to organise.

· Decide what are our priorities

Why not make your own list of rights you would like to have respected? Some rights will be laid down in law but not respected. Some may not yet be laid down in law. Women workers in Nicaragua made their own charter of demands, set them out in a Code for employers to respect, and campaigned until they got their government to agree to it. (See next page.) Perhaps drawing up a charter is something you would like to do.

· Organise with other workers

To claim our rights can be a difficult and dangerous task. Our strength lies in building a strong trade union movement. Trade unions have the right to reach collective bargaining agreements with employers, and take legal and industrial action if it is violated.

Workers who find it difficult to make their voice heard in the trade unions sometimes form their own organisations. But many trade unions realise that defending the workers whose rights are most under attack defends the rights of all workers.

· Link up with other workers

We live and work in a world economy where multinational companies can play workers in different places off each other. By building solidarity between workers, we can develop strategies which uphold the rights of all workers. Solidarity is especially fruitful between workers in different countries who share the same employer, and between workers who work in the same global production chain such as garments or food.

· Link up with consumer activists

Many companies are vulnerable to pressure from consumers. Workers and consumers working together can be a strong coalition for workers' rights. Finding out who buys our products or services can be an important step in building a strategy to defend our rights. Some companies have adopted codes of conduct which state how they will respect certain workers' rights. Workers need to find out whether there is a code for their workplace, and whether it can be used to build their own workers' organisation.

Also from Women Working Worldwide

· Pocket Guide to Workers' Rights, March 2000

Women Working Worldwide has also produced a Pocket Guide to Workers' Rights. Together the Pocket Guide and this Handbook make a set of two. The Pocket Guide gives a basic introduction to workers' rights. The Handbook goes into greater depth, giving more information for activists. Both are available in a number of different languages.

· Company Codes of Conduct: What Are They? Can We Use Them? An Education Pack for Worker Activists, July 1998.

This education pack, which has been used with workers' groups in Asia and Central America, goes into more detail about Codes of Conduct. It explains the different types of code that have been developed by companies, trade unions and consumer organisations. Also included are facilitators' notes for use in group education work. This material is available in languages including Bahasa Indonesia, Bengali, English, Marathi, Sinhala, Spanish, Tamil and Urdu.

To get a copy of these booklets, please contact Women Working Worldwide or the organisation below.

Women Working Worldwide
Room 412, MMU Manton Building
Rosamond Street West, Manchester M15 6LL
Tel: +44-161-247-1760 Fax: +44-161-247-6321
Email: women-ww@mcr1.poptel.org.uk

Both this handbook and its associated Pocket Guide to Workers Rights are available in several languages. Please contact WWW for details.

This Handbook on Workers' Rights in the World Economy has been produced by Women Working Worldwide to help explain what workers' rights are and how we can claim them.